Magnetic resonance imaging is a wonderful life-saving Innovation. It has a very rich scientific base. The initial emergence as a medical imaging innovation demanded two Nobel Prize-winning 50 years long academic research. High precision engineering and Craftsmanship have been equally important to deploy rich scientific knowledge into practical applications. Furthermore, the profit-making competition of Startups and corporations has been playing an equally important role in rolling out innovations for improving our quality of living standards. In addition to helping us to locate cancer without causing harm to our bodies, the invention and evolution of MRI also give us a wonderful lesson for blending academic research, engineering, and craftsmanship with the profit-making competition.
Magnetic resource imaging is an innovation wonder. It produces images of the internal functional structure of our bodies. Scientific discoveries find implementation with handcrafted machine components. As opposed to robots and production lines, a manual approach using “cell systems” producers MRI machines. The entire process, from the manufacturing of each component to final assembly, requires highly seasoned craftsmanship. For example, to make the coils that are critical to the MRI image quality, a seasoned craftsman spends about a month engraving fine grooves into a copper plate. On the other hand, the knowledge contained in hundreds of scientific publications is collected, fused, and refined to add or improve a feature. The implementation of those features requires high-precision implementation, both in shaping physical components and fine-tuning algorithms. The invention and evolution of MRI is a superb example of the blending of Science, Engineering, and Craftmanship.
Academic publications leading to technology invention and life-saving innovation –fueled by profit-making competition by startups and corporations
Like a smartphone camera, the resolution of MRI is also increasing. However, it does not happen by improving the photolithography process following Moors Law. Instead, it takes a painstaking process of gathering scientific knowledge, followed by advancement in signal processing algorithms. Finally, handcrafted high-precision physical components are precisely aligned together to bring added clarity to the image. Besides scientific discoveries and engineering design, skilled technicians’ contribution to building MRI machines is equally important. Hence, we should have a balanced focus on human capital development.
The invention of MRI is a collective effort of dozens of scientists over 50 years, before reaching fruition in 1978. In addition to scientific discoveries, the painstaking process of developing practical applications is equally remarkable. Moreover, since the first roll-out of the commercial MRI machine in 1983, this remarkable machine has been evolving. Every year, hundreds of scientific publications emerge with new knowledge, leading to further enhancement. Moreover, the advancement of electronics and computers is also playing a complementary role.
Underlying Scientific Principles of developing images carrying clinical information
As opposed to measuring tissue or bone density, MRI measures hydrogen distribution density. As part of a water molecule, hydrogen is present in our body. The human body is 60% water, even higher in young children (80%). However, much of this water is not inside our cells. Instead, it resides between the cells in our body. By measuring hydrogen density, MRI images give us information on how this water is free to move around inside our bodies. MRI machine uses a strong magnetic field to align magnetic property bearing hydrogen proton (like bar magnet rotating on an axis), and detect the resonance by deflecting the magnetic vector.
Solid masses (of which malignant tumors are one possibility) tend to be packed tightly together as they are growing uncontrollably. It means that the water in between those cells tends to be packed more closely than you would usually expect to see. This information shows up as the change of hydrogen density in the MRI images, giving vital clinical information. Moreover, the variation of tissue relaxation time provides further information about whether the suspected condensed tissue or lump is cancerous.
Long Scientific Journey led to the Invention and Evolution of MRI
MRI machine is a scientific marvel. Two Nobel Prizes have been awarded in recognition of the scientific contribution made in underpinning this wonderful machine. In the early 20th century, Sir Joseph Larmor developed Larmor relationship. It established that the angular frequency of the nuclear spins is proportional to the magnetic field’s strength. Subsequently, Felix Bloch of Stanford University and Edward Purcell of Harvard University developed instruments for measuring magnetic resonance in bulk materials such as liquids and solids. It was the first practical means to measure the magnetic resonance signal, giving birth to nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. In 1952, they received a Nobel prize in recognition of this important price of work.
In the early 1970s, Raymond Damadian of the State University of New York demonstrated that the relaxation time of normal and abnormal tissues of the same type varies with an NMR spectroscope. This was a watershed moment of MRI technology development. Unlike X-Ray, the potential of MRI emerged to study the functional behavior of the human body. Particularly, Mr. Damadian’s demonstration formed the cornerstone of detecting abnormal tissue, having malignment property—leading to patent filling. In modern MRI images, this information is shown is a change in darkness or color.
By utilizing gradients in the magnetic field, Paul Lauterbur of the State University of New York, in 1973, described an imaging technique for producing a two-dimensional image (back-projection). Peter Mansfield further developed this technique’s utilization through mathematical analysis of signals for a more useful imaging technique. For this contribution, both Paul C Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield received the 2003 Nobel Prize in Medicine. However, in 1975, Richard Ernst introduced 2D NMR using phase and frequency encoding and the Fourier Transform. Instead of Paul Lauterbur’s back-projection, he timely switched magnetic field gradients.
Science leading to MRI innovation and startups for practical usages
By 1977, scientists Peter Mansfield and Andrew A. Maudsley started presenting test MDI images. By this time, Raymond Damadian completed the first MRI scanner. Next year, in 1978, Mr. Damadian founded FONAR for exploiting the commercial opportunity of this new medical imaging modality, primarily for cancer detection. In fact, in 1974, the first MRI patent he received has a title: “An Apparatus and Method for Detecting Cancer in Tissue.” Within two years of formation, in 1980, FONAR manufactured the first commercial MRI scanner. However, it took six years for getting FDA approval in 1984. This success led to the entry of big names in the long race of invention and evolution of MRI.
Moreover, the journey of invention and evolution of MRI offers us a good lesson of linking high-end scientific discoveries, publications, and patents in offering economic prosperity and higher quality living standards. In absence of economic exploitation, indicators used for preparing the global innovation index (GII) are often misleading.
Multinationals Entered the Race of Invention and Evolution of MRI
By the late 1970s, commercial prospects of MRI started getting visible. Due to the time-varying relaxation effect, MRI’s unique role for detecting cancerous tissue started drawing multinationals’ attention. Among them, American GE, German Siemens, and Japanese Toshiba are notable.
GE got into the race of MRI innovation in 1980 with the joining of Paul Bottomley at the GE Research Center in Schenectady, New York. The team started working the highest field-strength magnet, then available, a 1.5 T system, and built the first high-field device. It translated into the highly successful GE’s 1.5 T MRI product line, delivering over 20,000 systems.
In 1975, the University of California, San Francisco established Radiologic Imaging Laboratory (RIL). The lab developed new imaging technology and installed systems in the US and worldwide. Japanese Toshiba got an edge in the MRI race through co-sponsoring RIL. In 1982, Toshiba developed Japan’s first Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system.
In February 1978, Siemens began developing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) products. For having an interference-free experimental platform, Siemens constructed a lab entirely from wood, without using even a single iron nail. Initial excitement came from the imaging of the bell paper. In January 1983, the first Siemens MRI system, still a prototype, found installation at Hannover Medical School. Just after eight months, in August 1983, Siemens became the first company in the world to install a commercial MRI system for clinical application at the Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology, in St. Louis, Missouri.
Among major players, Philips began exploring MRI with a pilot project launched in the mid-1970s. It developed a prototype that generated human images in 1978. In the race, Philips was among the last to enter the U.S. marketplace, gaining FDA approval for a 1.5T system in 1986.
Profitable business opportunity in the invention and evolution of MRI also spurred patent lawsuits
The main reason for which MRI found its unique role in medical imaging is due to its ability to detect cancerous lumps. However, the patent of it belonged to Mr. Damadian, the founder of FONAR. Hence, from 1992 to 1997, ‘nearly every one of its competitors in the MRI industry, including giant multinationals such as Toshiba, Siemens, Shimadzu, Philips, and GE, paid FONAR for the infringement of its patents. As reported by WSJ in 1997, a federal appeals court ruled, “General Electric Co. infringed on Fonar Corp. patents on medical scanners and must pay Fonar nearly $100 million in damages.” GE ultimately paid Fonar over $120 million in damages plus interest for the infringement of patents.
In the $6 billion Magnetic resonance imaging, top performers are Siemens, GE, Philips, and Toshiba. However, Toshiba medical unit now belongs to Canon. Due to its immense importance, every year, thousands of publications are emerging in different aspects of MRI. As a result, MRI has been evolving, both in its performance and application areas. In addition to the up-gradation of the magnetic field to 3 Tesla, the most recent MRI innovation advances have been on the software side, enabling faster contrast scans, greatly simplified cardiac imaging workflows, and allowing MRI scans of the lungs. Indeed, the invention and Evolution of MRI is a superb example of the blending of science, engineering, and craftsmanship.
A race of perfection has been at the core of creating scientific knowledge and turning it into the higher performance of a highly useful practical machine. Often, such an aspect is missed in preparing traditional innovation indices like the global innovation index (GII).
